Porter, J. R., & Washington, R. E. (1979). Black identity and self-esteem: A review of studies of black self-concept, 1968–1978. Annual Review of Sociology, 5, 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.05.080179.000413

Authors considered self-concept as mostly a social product, shaped by other people’s attitudes and conduct toward the individual. They believed that because many ethnic groups in the United States were victims of prejudice, it was assumed that being a minority could lead to low self-esteem. The authors reviewed the literature from 1968–1978 on the personality patterns of different ethnic groups, focusing the study tradition on black self-image.