Category Archives: multicultural societies

What Is the Multicultural Diversity of Countries?

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Cultures are commonly associated with certain territories and countries. These are national cultures. And cultural borders are viewed as clearly recognizable national, state, or tribal boundaries. These are not quite correct representations of what cultures are. Multicultural diversity exists in many countries around the world.

The multicultural diversity of nations shows how culturally diverse people live in their countries. People living in some countries have long historical traditions of residing together in those territories. Throughout their history, they have maintained homogeneous or heterogeneous populations.

Multicultural Diversity Around the World

The variety of tribal groups in many African countries, such as Chad, Cameroon, Congo, Nigeria, and Togo, are culturally diverse in their origins. Some Asian countries, such as India and Indonesia, and Switzerland in Europe, are also diverse in their ethnic populations. They have long historical traditions of living as close neighbors in those territories.

A modern era of cultural diversity has emerged due to increased mobility, the availability of social media, and mass migration. It is because of these new trends that societies in many European countries, Canada, the United States, and Singapore have become culturally much more diverse than before.

Multiculturalism and multicultural diversity in countries can characterize various characteristics of people, such as racial, ethnic, religious, gender, age, sexual orientation, and the languages they speak. Cultural diversity also encompasses various ways of being for people, such as their cultural values, norms, rituals, dispositions, emotions, and patterns of behavior.

Monocultural Societies

Many countries’ populations are quite homogeneous in their ethnicity, religion, language, and cultural traditions. Due to their historical roots, they have common beliefs, values, norms, and customs of behavior. These countries have monocultural societies. Examples of such monocultural countries are Argentina, Uruguay, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Rwanda, Sweden, Japan, the Comoros, North Korea, South Korea, and some others (The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world, Pew Research Center, 2013).

People in such monocultural countries speak their common languages. However, many national societies are less homogeneous than researchers could expect. Besides, individuals have significant typological differences that extend beyond their cultural similarities.

Multicultural Societies

The populations of many other countries are heterogeneous in terms of the languages, ethnicities, religions, and cultural traditions of the people who live there.

Some countries are culturally diverse from their origins, such as, for example, Cameroon, Chad, Nigeria, the Congo, Togo, South Africa, and some other African countries, due to the historical variety of their tribal groups and languages.

The populations of several Western countries, such as Canada, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, are also multilingual, and people in different regions may speak different languages.

The societies of other countries are heterogeneous because of migration. Canada is the most diverse in this regard. The United States, Russia, and Spain are also quite culturally diverse, though to a moderate degree (The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world, Pew Research Center, 2013).

Many multicultural countries, such as Indonesia, India, Nigeria, Singapore, and the United States, have multiethnic populations. People converged on these territories due to migration and other historical events.

A Variety of Relationships in Culturally Diverse Countries

Cultures and people in such multicultural societies may have various relationships with each other. In some cases, they live peacefully in neighboring territories. In other cases, they clash with each other. Sometimes they invade, conquer, and dominate each other. Sometimes, they respect their equality. Human history has witnessed a variety of such intercultural relations.

In some cases, people coexist in certain territories, yet they live in different neighborhoods. In cases of ethnic inequality, they can be segregated. The tendency of people of the same culture to live in proximity to each other and separate from people of other cultures is well-known (Karandashev, 2021). Similarities are attractive.

Generally, cultures and people in multicultural countries can recognize the existence of cultural diversity or not. They can tolerate cultural differences or celebrate them. They can respect each other’s cultural differences and acknowledge that all cultural expressions are valid, or not. They can either appreciate what different cultures contribute to a society or not.

The Regional Diversity of Countries

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What are the national cultures? Does any regional diversity exist in the national cultures? Or are they homogeneous in their national cultures?

National cultures are the cultures that people from specific countries living in certain territories have in common with each other. National cultures have evolved over time due to various historical events. They can share historical origins, languages, ethnicities, religions, social institutions, cultural norms, traditions, practices, and many other things, but primarily they belong to the same nationality.

People belonging to national cultures are Italians, Greeks, Finns, Swedes, Brits, French, Austrians, Germans, Moroccans, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Indians, Indonesians, Americans, and Canadians. These are national cultures because they consist of people from the same country within national borders. If people reside abroad but keep their nationality and cultural identity, they can be considered to belong to their nationality of origin.

Do national cultures exist as something cultural that they have in common? Cultural studies have demonstrated that people of specific nationalities have similar beliefs, attitudes, values, cultural norms, practices, and behaviors.

Throughout the history of cultural research, scholars have classified national cultures into groups according to cultural similarities between nations. Western and Eastern cultures were among the earliest transnational cultural divisions. Researchers usually attribute Western societies to individualistic cultures, while Eastern cultures are attributed to collectivistic cultures. Some core differences between Western and Eastern cultures certainly exist.

African and Latin American cultures combine with other large transnational groups of cultures. European cultures are often divided into East-European and West-European cultures (Karandashev, 2021).

Regional Diversity of National Cultures

National cultures can be monocultural, multicultural, or regionally specific in terms of their subcultures. For decades, cross-cultural studies have primarily focused on the comparisons between national cultures, neglecting regional variations within each country. Therefore, researchers investigated, for instance, the residents of New York City and Paris as representatives of American and French national cultures. Besides, undergraduate students from the middle class have been typical participants in the studies.

There are plenty of regional cultures within many national cultures. In this regard, it may not be quite adequate to treat the United States of America, Switzerland, India, and other large, multiregional, and multiethnic countries as unitary, monolithic, and monocultural national cultures (Smith & Bond, 1999). Such an approach can conceal the diverse nature of their subcultures, or even different cultures unified under one national unit.

Territorial regions of some countries with historically distinct cultures strive to retain their social and cultural identities. Among well-known examples, are Scotland in the United Kingdom, Bavaria in Germany, Catalonia in Spain, Quebec in Canada, and Texas in the United States.

Regional Diversity of Cultures in France

France is a country with a relatively modest territory. Nevertheless, the French people of northern France are quite different from the people of southern France. The cultures of the northern and southern regions of France shaped their regional cultures due to the impact of surrounding countries and the climate.

The culture of northern France may look, to some extent, like the neighboring north European cultures of Germany and Belgium. People in northern France are a little more reserved and less flamboyant than southerners.

The culture of southern France can remind you of the Mediterranean cultures of Spain, Portugal, and Italy. People in the south of France are more extraverted and flamboyant.

Regional Diversity of Cultures in Germany

German culture also has significant cultural diversity between its regions. Distinct differences exist between southern, northern, and eastern Germany.

The industrialized regions of northern Germany, such as Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, and Frankfurt, are culturally more transnational. This can be due to their historical international trade relations with other countries (Hall & Hall, 1990).

Some German regions have their own cultural origins and prefer to follow their cultural heritage. For example, the cultural understanding of work ethics and time systems in Mannheim is quite different from Munich. Many German territories are Protestant. That is different from the Catholic German south.

Bavarians feel quite different culturally from other parts of Germany. The Bavarian German language has a strong regional dialect. Historically, Bavaria is traditionally Catholic. However, the number of Catholics has recently declined.

Regional Diversity of Cultures in the USA

The United States of America is a country with a great regional diversity of population. Since its origins, the USA has been a country of immigrants, with colonists from various countries settling in different parts of its large territory. Immigrants of the same origin preferred to reside close to others of the same nationality.

American demographers tend to speak of Americans as being people of Western and Northern European roots. These European Americans are the cultural majority. Native Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, and Asian Americans are usually viewed as the cultures of minorities. One can see an obvious European-centric notion of American culture, which contrasts with others (Karandashev, 2021).

It is worthy of note that immigrants from different European countries, such as Sweden and Italy, have many cultural differences. The same can be said about Asian Americans. Despite their general Asian similarity, they are culturally diverse.

Another major facet of American regional diversity is the socially noticeable cultural distinctions between the southern and northern states. Many researchers consider the northern and southern parts of the USA to have different cultures (e.g., Cohen, 1996; Vandello & Cohen, 1999; Vandello, Cohen, & Ransom, 2008).

The Culture of the American South States

Generally, people living in southern states are more conservative and more collectivistic in many regards. Collectivist tendencies are stronger in the Deep South. Southerners tend to consider social stratification fair and favor patriarchal gender roles. They are more intolerant of ambiguity and uncertainty in many situations. Therefore, they prefer the established order in life. They highly respect the cultural tradition, stressing the value of honor.

The Culture of the American North States

Commonly, people living in northern states are more liberal and individualistic in many respects. Individualist tendencies are stronger in the Mountain West and Great Plains. Northerners tend to favor social justice and gender equality. They are more tolerant of situations of ambiguity and uncertainty in life. They emphasize the value of pride less than southerners.

Modern and Traditional Models of Relationships in Spain

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Interest in love studies has been on the rise among Spanish researchers in recent decades. Scholars explored the general processes of love relationships and culturally specific aspects of Spanish cultural models of love (Karandashev, 2019, 2022). Let us look at the modern and traditional models of relationships in Spain, considering the examples of Spanish couples and Moroccan immigrants’ couples.

The recent article “Love, Relationships, and Couple Happiness: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Among Spanish Couples and Moroccan Couples in Southern Spain” by Encarnación Soriano-Ayala, Verónica C. Cala, Manuel Soriano Ferrer, and Herenia García-Serrán recently reported the study of multicultural models of love in Southern Spain (Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021).

Modernized Spanish Culture and Relationships in Spain

The authors show that love relationships are sociocultural constructions, and the differences in cultural models of relationships in Western and Arab countries play their roles. Moroccan immigration comes from Arab society. It is Spain’s largest foreign cultural group that brings with it the Arab culture of relationships. Due to this large immigration, people in Spanish society observe the coexistence of two models of relationships: modernized Spanish and traditional Moroccan cultures.

Modernized Spanish culture has changed along with the country’s social and economic changes. There is less religious influence and more open public discussion to support freedom of choice in relationships. Attitudes towards relationships and love have become more liberal, flexible, and open to diversity. Spanish men and women tend to have a greater number of partners, with a shorter relationship duration and less predisposition to marriage. The more fluid forms of love govern these patterns of relationships. Despite such modernization of relationships in Spain, “familism” is quite distinctive to Spanish culture. Some estimates indicate that Spain is the most family-centered country in the European Union. Nevertheless, only one-third of the Spanish stated that their family had a strong influence on them. This fact can reflect the loss of the importance of the family as an institution among the Spanish.

Traditional Arab Islamic Culture and Relationships in Spain

Traditional Islamic societies have remained largely conservative in these regards. In their cultures, religion defines many of the normative prescriptions for love relationships. Although Arab Islamic societies have traditionally valued eroticism, pleasurable sexuality, and love, they considered them separate from marital relationships. In the matter of marriage, their views were opposite, with the restriction on freedom of choice and sex being focused on its reproductive function and the maintenance of social roles and status. Moroccan immigrants tend to have more stable and lasting relationships in which marriage plays an important role. Moroccan couples residing in Spain have the highest marriage rates. Marriages continue to serve a social status that immigrant Islamic communities highly value. According to some estimates, more than 90% of the Moroccans stated that their family had had a strong influence on them.

How Happy Are Spanish Couples and Moroccan Immigrant Couples in a Relationship?

Based on their analysis of earlier research, the authors identified some sociocultural differences in how happy couples feel in their relationships. They claimed that:

“The enormous changes in affective-emotional relationships in Europe and the United States have been accompanied by decreased marital happiness and satisfaction within the couple, particularly among groups with low socio-educational levels and minority ethnic groups. These groups experienced the lowest satisfaction.” “Conversely, family, sexual and matrimonial forms in Arab countries have experienced transformations in affective relationships that are tempered by the role of religion, thus maintaining greater stability in family, marital and gender structures, although younger generations are beginning to demonstrate changes in that stability.”

Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021

So, from these two excerpts, we see two main tendencies, which are difficult to judge in terms of good or bad. In the first case, it is about relationship satisfaction, while in the second case, it is about marital stability—two incomparable parameters of relationships.

Acculturation in Relationships

A main question for this study is, “What happens to couples from non-western countries, such as Morocco, when they migrate to Western countries, such as Spain?”

The authors reviewed a few studies that examined post-migratory changes in couple relationships when they migrated from traditional to modernized cultures. Those studies showed that couples continue to maintain their own cultural norms while adopting the new cultural norms of the society from which they migrated. They gradually develop a hybrid cultural model of relationships. Some immigrants acculturate to a new cultural model of love sooner than others.

The change in the affective and relational models of couples shifts the immigrants’ attitudes in favor of the romantic model of love, towards more freedom of choice and less dependency on family ties.

Couple Relationships in Morocco

In Morocco, such basic cultural values as honor, religion, traditional gender roles, and family stability significantly influence couple relationships. However, the gradual transformations in Moroccan society, such as the modernization of interpersonal relationships, continue.

Among those are legislative measures such as the “Moudawana” family code, which allowed divorce, set a minimum legal age for marriage, and started to punish sexual harassment.

A liberal romantic understanding emerged that recognizes marriage as a choice and the fruit of love. This new cultural value admits new forms of intimacy.

All these mixtures of modern norms and practices with traditional ones evolve into ambivalent and contradictory modern models of relationships. Some people experience a liberalization of their lifestyles linked to modernized sexual and social patterns. The other people tend to preserve their traditional Arab Islamic norms and practices, which are linked with puritanism and conservatism in gender and sexual relationships. Scholars also consider controversial interpretations of these changes (see for review, Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021).

Some speak of a Moroccan sexual and democratic revolution due to Western ethnocentrism. They explain the changes that occur as the result of progressive steps forward for the family, romanticism, and intimacy. Many scholars, however, focus on more traditional and folk ways of life, which give rise to rigid stereotypes about sentimental relationships in Arab and Muslim couples.

How Are the Relationships in the Couples of Spaniards and Moroccan Immigrants in Spain?

A recent survey study showed that Spaniards perceive their relationships as less stable. The relationships are influenced by a variety of factors. However, they reported spending a greater amount of time with their partners than Moroccan couples. The relational patterns of Spaniards reinforce the new, discontinuous forms of couple relationships. Those patterns are consistent with a weakening of interpersonal connections in Western societies (Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021).

Spanish women tend to highly value love in their lives. They consider intimacy especially important and rate their happiness in couple relationships highly. The Spanish women felt happier and more satisfied. However, the Moroccan women did not feel this way. Moroccan women tend to be in favor of romantic love. They give high priority to commitment, intimacy, and passion. However, someone may doubt the validity of such self-reports from Spanish and Moroccan women considering the other findings described above.

The results of a recent survey study found that the Moroccans in Spain are more influenced by religion and family. Despite the migration to different societies, they consider religion a very important factor of socialization for the Moroccan communities. They tend to maintain more stability in relationships (Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021).

For Moroccan men and women, the maintenance of social relations and communities, such as family or religious practice, is of high importance. These social values displace the importance they place on couple relationships. Couple relationships for Muslim women are based more on socio-economic materiality than on intangible sentimentality, such as love and couple relationships. Even among immigrants, love does not occupy the vital role in their lives that is culturally attributed to it. They would rather establish strong emotional bonds with other women. The stereotype of the submissive woman may not be quite adequate.

Gender-unequal stereotypical roles are considered

the “feminine mystique” and represent women as “emotional beings who are responsible for giving and expressing love to men”

(Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021, p.82)

In summary,

“The Spanish love style appears as a transitional style between the romantic model of the twentieth century and new neo-liberal forms linked to love, sexual poly-consumption and female empowerment.” “The love model presented by the Moroccan people corresponds to the traditional forms of love. In immigrant couples, the liberalisation of love that is taking place in large Moroccan cities is not observed to any significant extent”

(Soriano-Ayala et al., 2021, p. 84).